History of amateur radio It forms part of the Amateur-satellite service

History of amateur radio As the world of wireless communication continues to evolve, ham radio will remain an Radio is one example. The first U. It's the largest association of ham radio hobbyists in the Yaesu, a well-known manufacturer of amateur radio equipment, was founded in 1956 by Sako Hasegawa in Tokyo, Japan. DLARC is a project of the Internet Archive, and my job is to AMATEUR RADIOGiven our familiarity with digitally tuned radios, we easily overlook the technical skills once required to enjoy radio. An amateur radio operator is someone who uses equipment at an amateur radio station to engage in two-way personal communications with other amateur operators on radio frequencies assigned to On World Amateur Radio Day the president of the International Amateur Radio Union reviews the achievements of "ham radio" Change in Amateur Radio operation modes often comes slowly due to the need to change equipment. You can communicate over the airwaves much like amateurs did decades ago. Eventually, frequency regulations History of Radio and Particularly Amateur Radio Compiled by Dave Casler, KEØOG, 16 April 2014 Definition of amateur: one who uses his own resources to do something; not paid; not sponsored by Overview Introduction to amateur radio Amateur radio, also known as ham radio, is a fascinating hobby that allows individuals to communicate with others around The history of amateur radio, dates from the dawn of radio communications, with published instructions for building simple wireless sets appearing at the beginning of the twentieth century. Amateur Radio and the Rise of SSB The hams who were first to get on the air with single sideband created a revolution in Amateur Radio. Two major changes in the history Amateur call signs date back to before the time when the Federal Government first began issuing amateur radio licenses and call signs at the end of 1912. Rather than focusing on the Various VHF conference proceedings of the regional amateur radio societies, ARRL Handbooks, VHF manuals of both the ARRL and the RSGB, FCC Rules and Regulations, and Federal Law pertinent to As the ham radio population grew, thepool of available call signs became shallow, and the FCC startedissuing 2 2 call signs (beginning with W) to Amateur Extra licensees. Amateur radio, also known as ham radio, is a wireless communication service The Radio Act of 1912 is passed, which limits amateur radio stations to 200 meters. The amateur radio population stands at 350,000. Its journey, from Marconi’s early wireless experiments to the Amateur Radio and World War And the impact each had on the other. [1] Throughout Join Canadian Historical Sites On The Air and explore Canada’s rich history through ham radio. The Library of American Broadcasters Vintage amateur radio is a subset of amateur radio hobby where enthusiasts collect, restore, preserve, build, and operate amateur radio equipment from Tesla pursued the application of his coils to radio and realized that the coils could be tuned so that the resulting resonance greatly amplified a radio signal. Organization and History Use the menu at the left to explore the 95-year his­to­ry of the IARU and how it is orga­nized today. This form of communication has evolved Welcome! This is a tour of amateur radio history, beginning around the turn of the last century. Surplus WW2 HF and VHF radios are repurposed for amateur radio Amateur radio kits become widespread Flood of commercial radio equipment at affordable prices SSB homebrew articles and Surplus WW2 HF and VHF radios are repurposed for amateur radio Amateur radio kits become widespread Flood of commercial radio equipment at affordable prices SSB homebrew articles and A Brief History of Amateur Radio Experimentation in what was to become a new field called “radio” started around 1888 when Heinrich Rudolph Hertz proved the existence of electro-magnetic waves. Its journey, from The Sixties: Amateur radio officially joined the Space Age with the first amateur-built satellites. The company quickly gained a reputation for producing "Veteran radio broadcaster David Gleason built a nine-million-page archive to set the record straight on what he sees as the medium's oft-distorted history. Read More Radio History Documents On this page, we provide links to many documents relating to the earliest days of radio broadcasting, starting from from the days of What is Ham Radio? Amateur Radio (ham radio) is a popular hobby and service that brings people, electronics and communication together. It unfolds blog-style in periodic installments or chapters. Dating back from the early 1900's to present. As early as 1929, two Melbourne commercial radio stations, 3UZ and 3DB were conducting experimental mechanical television broadcasts – these were Ham Radio History is a new series on this channel where I pick a historical topic involving the hobby of amateur radio, research it, and I create a video abo Ham radio engineering reference handbooks the 20's onwards As in every year since 1926, the ARRL Handbook has been the authoritative source for technical information for radio amateurs and others The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the national association for amateur radio, connecting hams around the U. Conclusion The World of Ham Timeline of radio The timeline of radio lists within the history of radio, the technology and events that produced instruments that use radio waves and activities that I’m the curator of the Digital Library of Amateur Radio and Communications. By mid-1904 the Navy had established 20 coastal stations to make special Amateur radio, or ham radio, has evolved a great deal from Marconi’s Atlantic transmissions, but it still is a deliciously Cyril Browne, based in Dublin, tells us what amateur radio is, why it isn’t CB, and why it is more popular than ever. 1901 Marconi bridges the Find the true history of 10 meter radios and their use in the Amateur Radio hobby. 1913-Edwin Armstrong develops the regenerative receiver and also discovers that the "Audion" (Triode) can Radio captured the imagination of thousands of ordinary persons who wanted to experiment with this amazing new technology. licensed Amateur Radio Operator The History of Amateur "Ham" Radio Podcast Transcript The early days of radio were like the wild west. At that Ham radio, also known as amateur radio, involves using radio equipment to communicate with other amateur radio operators around the world. Here is a brief history of the amateur satellites that have and are presently circling the globe. com is one of the largest sources of Amateur Radio information on the Internet. It is argued by some historians that the first recoded Ham radios, also known as amateur radios, have a rich history that dates back to the late 19th century. The early days of wireless communication were marked by experiments What is Ham Radio? Amateur Radio (ham radio) is a popular hobby and service that brings people, electronics and communication together. Vintage Amateur Radio HAM MEMORIES 1960s-1970 history--- For over 100 years, wireless radio communication and later voice technology has been a fascinating and valuable hobby for nearly all ages ARRL, the national association for amateur radio in the U. Even though This book explores the history of ham radio operators, emphasizing their social history and their many contributions to the technological development of worldwide communications. I encourage you to read the following sources for a more comprehensive understanding of this 73 Magazine (also known as 73 Amateur Radio Today) was a United States-based amateur radio magazine that was published from 1960 to 2003. By Dan Davis, W8LUX 1672 Snyder Road East Lansing, Ml 48823 here have been significant events that have shaped the history 10 key milestones in ham radio history—from spark gap to FT8—that reshaped communications and defined the hobby. [1] The first amateur radio operator was licensed in 1921, and by the mid As you can see, the origins of the name ‘Ham’ are not clear cut! In this article, we will discuss the real reason why Amateur radios are called Ham radios and The History of Amateur Radio and the ARRL Click on the above link!! Michael Marinaro, WN1M has authored historical articles for several Amateur Radio Most Famous Ham Radio Operators: A Definitive List of Trailblazers Ham radio has a long and storied history, dating back to the early 20th century when Amateur radio has played a crucial role in Canada’s communication history, from pioneering early wireless technology to supporting During the past 90 years, the history of amateur radio has been highlighted by a number of epochal events : the advent of medium-wave radio communications as a mass medium; a shift from long to Throughout its history, amateur radio enthusiasts have made significant contributions to science, engineering, industry, and social services. The history of radio communication is really a part of the history of communication, with particular reference to the electromagnetic spectrum. So it may be that no one knows for sure which one (or ones) is/are Amateur radio, also known as ham radio, is the use of the radio frequency spectrum for purposes of non-commercial exchange of messages, wireless experimentation, self-training, private recreation, AWA co-founder Bruce Kelley, W2ICE, explores the history and technology of early amateur radio in the days when spark transmitters and Alexanderson alternators were cutting edge technology. federal licensing of amateur radio operators and stations began with the enactment of the Radio Act of 1912. All licensed radio ama­teurs ben­e­fit from the work of the IARU, whether or not they are mem­bers of their nation­al IARU mem­ber-soci­ety. Suddenly 121 of the 250 countries on the DXCC list were offthe air. This legislation required all radio transmitters and operators Discover virtual and live tours showcasing the rich history of ham radio and communications. The next milestone was the 1922 Amateur Radio call signs will now be government assigned. Activate historic sites, connect with fellow hams, and be part of a community What Is The History of Amateur Radio? Amateur Radio: A Century of Innovation and Community Amateur radio, often called "ham radio," has been a driving force in global communication for over a Early Amateur Radio in the UK can be seen at Dawn Of Radio in the UK and Europe 16 1899 Marconi sends a signal over the English Channel - 32 miles. Amateur two-way communication by reflecting signals off the moon (Earth-moon This is a tour of amateur radio history, beginning around the turn of the last century. Amateur radio The air began to fill with signals from military, commercial and amateur transmitters. But what world The origins of amateur radio call signs go back to the earliest days of radio, informally at first, then more formalized as major world events transpired that changed the face of amateur radio itself. [1] Throughout In the 1890s, the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi created the practical radio wave-based wireless telegraph system, which is why he is known as the The Birth of Amateur Radio (1900s-1920s) In the early 1900s, wireless telegraphy became widely available, and experimenters—many of them hobbyists—began building their own radio transmitters A brief history of early ham radio, with an overview of what hams do today and how to become one. It includes notable amateur radio international, national, regional, and local organizations. It was known for its strong emphasis on technical The World of Ham Radio, 1901-1950: A Social History - Kindle edition by Bartlett, Richard A. Rather than focusing on the Not-So-Great Moments in Ham Radio History: The Repeater Welcome to the first in a series of articles that take a cursory, historical look of different facets of amateur radio. People use ham The American Radio Relay League was established, under the early leadership of Hiram Percy Maxim and Clarence Tuska, as a fraternity of amateur radio Ham radio has redefined how people connect, serving as a lifeline in emergencies and a gateway to global friendships. It beautifully combines technology, communication, and community spirit. 1979-The World Administrative Radio Conference, or WARC-79, takes place in Amateur Radio History Timelines CLICK FOR WELCOME MESSAGE Also make suggestions — especially corrections and new entries — just go to our Ham The fascinating history of ham radio can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when pioneers like James Clerk Maxwell and Guglielmo Marconi Amateur radio station with transceivers, amplifiers, and a computer for digital modes. In the Library The ARRL Online Library The ARRL Online Library is a free repository of educational presentations and oral history, to better preserve Amateur Radio's The Rich History of Ham Radio Culture Drawing on a wealth of personal accounts found in magazines, newsletters, and trade journals, historian Kristen Haring provides an inside look at ham radio culture Radio broadcasting has been used in the United States since the early 1920s to distribute news and entertainment to a national audience. 8 Megahertz, which is just above the broadcast radio frequencies, all the way up to 275 The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the national association for amateur radio, connecting hams around the U. The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the national association for amateur radio, connecting hams around the U. Discover the historical moments every enthusiast should know about. Until late 1912 there was no licencing or regulation of radio transmitters in A long story (I) Like any scientific story, we cannot relate the venture of amateur radio without considering the socioeconomic context that saw its emergence. From the early days of Morse code Ham Radio, officially known as amateur radio, has a rich and fascinating history that spans over a century. Ham radio, also known as amateur radio, has a long and fascinating history that dates back over a century. First Grade required a written essay This book explores the history of ham radio operators, emphasizing their social history and their many contributions to the technological development of worldwide communications. To accomplish these broad objectives, amateurs must be afforded Radio captured the imagination of thousands of ordinary persons who wanted to experiment with this amazing new technology. "Packet" radio first appears on the ham bands, on an experimental basis. Where did “Ham” Come From? There are a number of theories about how the term “ham” came to refer to amateur radio operators. Until late 1912 there was no licencing or regulation of radio transmitters in In conclusion, the history of amateur radio is a story of innovation, resilience, and camaraderie that spans over a century of radio communications. Over the next 10 years, dozens of Arctic and Antarctic expeditions, including those of Commander Byrd, In this article: Amateur radio’s history goes back more than a century Ham radio can be anything you want it to be. This book (an MIT Press The Storied History of the Ham Radio Call Sign Every legalamateur radio operator in the world has a government issued call sign, and manyhams are better known to their radio friends by their call sign Early 20th century Amateur Radio as practiced today began in the early 20th century. Library The ARRL Online Library The ARRL Online Library is a free repository of educational presentations and oral history, to better preserve Amateur Radio's Amateur radio exists for the purpose of self-training, intercommunication and technical investigations. Amateur two-way communication by reflecting signals off the moon (Earth-moon The amateur radio population stands at 350,000. It also includes lists of organisations from dependent and overseas The community spirit of ham radio was further solidified during World War II, when once again, hams served their countries by manning Field Day is an annual amateur radio contest, widely sponsored by IARU regions and member organizations, encouraging emergency communications preparedness [1] among amateur radio Telling the tale of radio – the trek started sometime around 1864 with some proposed theories about electromagnetism and supporting mathematical proofs. Recognizing the QST Magazine 1915-1969 Amateur Radio Magazine from the American Radio Relay League - Early Issues "QST", in amateur radio shorthand, means "Calling all Stations" It's also the name of the The history of ham radio reaches back over a century, starting with Marconi’s first experiments as an “amateur” radio operator. First Grade required a written essay examination and a code test of 5 words per The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the national association for amateur radio, connecting hams around the U. The DLARC is funded by a significant grant from Amateur Radio Today Amateur radio is officially represented and coordinated by the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU), which is The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the national association for amateur radio, connecting hams around the U. Government dedicated a certain amount of the radio spectrum to amateur operators. This re-striction is not due to a lack of interest or a lack of importance of the broader topic of worldwide Amateur Radio, but The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the national association for amateur radio, connecting hams around the U. History of Amateur Radio, also called Ham Radio The history of amateur radio, dates from the dawn of radio communications, with published instructions for building simple wireless sets appearing at the Amateur Radio mobilized and provided communication support following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. Generally new modes can be tested in the amateur radio service, although national Finding your ham roots A history of amateur radio call signs & tracing the history of your own call sign. It provides new and potential hams with the information needed to get started in the hobby of Amateur Radio. The following month, the FCC In the United States in 1913 there were 322 licensed amateur radio operators who would ultimately be relegated to the seemingly barren wasteland of the radio spectrum, short wave. [1] These satellites use amateur radio frequency allocations to The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the national association for amateur radio, connecting hams around the U. The protection against loss, duplication, or misdelivery of packets is usually ensured by TCP Ham radio, a type of two-way radio, got its start circa 1927 when the U. The Amateur Radio service is created with two classes of licenses, First Grade and Second Grade. 1979-The World Administrative Radio Conference, or WARC-79, takes place in The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the national association for amateur radio, connecting hams around the U. The IARU comprises When talking about the history of ham radio, we need to define ham radio first. 5 wpm code required (1912) Code The Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES) was formed in 1935 by the American Radio Relay League (ARRL). It forms part of the Amateur-satellite service. 1979-The World Administrative Radio Conference, or WARC-79, takes place in Amateur radio is represented by the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU), which has three regions and includes national amateur radio societies in most Ham radio, also known as amateur radio, has a rich and storied history that stretches back over a century. The Amateur Radio service is created with two classes of Prospective amateur radio operators are examined on understanding of the key concepts of electronics, radio equipment, antennas, radio propagation, RF safety, and the radio regulations of the This is a list of amateur radio organizations. But every licensed radio ama­teur should be a Radio Alpha addresses the critical need for a centralized, reliable, and easily navigable archive of amateur radio's past. Download it once and read it on your Kindle Here is a brief history of the amateur satellites that have and are presently circling the globe. This An antenna farm hosting various radio antennas on Sandia Peak near Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States Radio is the technology of communicating using Ham Radio was an amateur radio magazine founded in 1968 and the first issue appeared in February of that year. Along the way, sideband would even affect the course of the The International Amateur Radio Union has been the worldwide voice of radio amateurs, securing and safeguarding the amateur radio Applied to amateur radio, data are the audio and the PTT keying. There were no rules, and that lack of rules often led to problems. Learning Ham Radio Skills Ham radio Developments that spelled the end of ham radio (as pronounced by pessimists of the time, limited mostly to the US): The introduction of licensing. In1990 it was announced that Ham Radio had been sold to the publishers of CQ Amateur Etymology of ham radio Ham radio is a popular term for amateur radio, derived from "ham" as an informal name for an amateur radio operator. This book explores the history of ham radio operators, emphasizing their social history and their many contributions to the technological development of worldwide communications. Decades before the OUTLINE OF AMATEUR RADIO HISTORY 1894-1899--Marconi conducts his wireless experiments in Europe and sends a message across the English Channel. The pioneers of On May 18, the American Radio Relay League celebrated its 100th anniversary. Print This Page Updated on January 27, 2020 Materials on If you're a ham radio operator, you probably have your own personal history of ham radio, and in this video Tom Perera, W1TP, tells his story of ham radio. Throughout the history of amateur radio, amateur radio enthusiasts have made significant contributions to science, engineering, The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the national association for amateur radio, connecting hams around the U. The hobby of amateur radio, or “ham radio” as it is commonly known among its 3 million global practitioners, has been at the vanguard of electrical and computer engineering since a young Italian The history of radio had many contributors, beginning with the scientific discovery of electromagnetic radiation (radio waves) in the late 1800s, followed by Today, amateur radio operators are allocated 26 radio bands -- specific groups of frequencies-- spaced from 1. A Century of Amateur Radio and the ARRL: World War II began in September 1939 as a European war, just as WorldWar I had. The History and Science of Ham The MacMillian Arctic Expedition is the first to carry two way radio; an amateur 200 meter station. SOURCES This short history of ham radio satellites barely scratches the surface. F Not-So-Great Moments in Ham Radio History: The Repeater Welcome to the first in a series of articles that take a cursory, historical look of different facets of amateur radio. Messages are sent either by voice or in International Morse This article deals, for the most part, with Amateur Radio in the United States. The Extraordinary History of Amateur Radio Satellites Here's a startling fact — more than 70 Amateur Radio satellites have been launched over four decades. with news, information and resources. This table of contents is useful whether you’re new to this site or Amateur radio, also known as ham radio, has a rich and fascinating history that dates back to the early days of radio communications. This list may not reflect recent changes. This table of contents is useful whether you’re new to The evolution of amateur radio from the early days of spark gap transmitters to the cutting-edge capabilities of software-defined radios Amateur Radio History: Ham Radio History The history of amateur radio or ham radio is a fascinating story that tells of amateur Amateur radio, noncommercial two-way radio communications. QSL's are in order. You In fact, by 1909, the first amateur radio club, The Junior Wireless Club, was organized in New York, later changing its name to the Radio Contents Welcome! This is a tour of amateur radio history, beginning around the turn of the last century. S. In 1978, Novice licenses You can find ham radio clubs and communities in your area by searching online or contacting your local regulatory agency. What Is the Best Ham Radio for Preppers? Ham radio is popular with preppers because it’s the only form of technology that can be used in any type of emergency. Register for events and engage with the fascinating world of FCC amateur radio station license of Al Gross In the United States, amateur radio licensing is governed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Jack Kilby, inventor of the integrated circuit, is Silent key 2005 : First ham tourist in space 2006 : FCC eliminates the Morse code exam. ARRL is a non-profit Ham-Shack. The future of communications (In addition) Caught in the web Overall, the history of amateur radio is full of innovation, discovery, and camaraderie. A history of ham radio culture: how ham radio enthusiasts formed identity and community through their technical hobby, from the 1930s through the Cold War. This blog post delves into the Ham radio has redefined how people connect, serving as a lifeline in emergencies and a gateway to global friendships. His work led to 7. In this article, we will explore the evolution of Explore the evolution of amateur radio from spark gap transmitters to software-defined radios, tracing key innovations that shaped This publication provided hobbyists and amateur radio enthusiasts with practical instructions to build their own radio equipment, fostering the growth of the The history of amateur radio or ham radio is a fascinating story that tells of amateur experimenters pitting their wits many technical issues Explore 10 key milestones and developments in ham radio history. The Sixties: Amateur radio officially joined the Space Age with the first amateur-built satellites. The International Telecommunication Union launched the Amateur Radio Service on May 17, 1865. The data include historical totals and trends, demographics including name and gender, On July 22, 2024, The MIT Press Reader published an excerpt from Ham Radio’s Technical Culture; a book by Auburn University Assistant Professor of History, Kristen Haring. Drawing on a wealth of personal accounts found in magazines, newsletters, and trade journals, historian Kristen Haring provides an Amateur radio is largely governed globally by the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU), a representative body in the ITU. ARRL is a non-profit The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the largest membership association of amateur radio enthusiasts in the United States. Amateur Radio (Ham Radio) is a popular hobby and a service in which licensed participants operate communications equipment. Explore fascinating advances in amateur radio. The Amateur Radio service is created with two classes of Modes of communication Amateurs use a variety of voice, text, image, and data communications modes over radio. Irving Vermilya, 1ZE is granted “Skill Certificate # 1”, making him the first U. Amateur Radio Through the Decades 1900–1910: Fol­low­ing in the foot­steps of Mar­coni and oth­er pio­neers, thou­sands of young The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the national association for amateur radio, connecting hams around the U. , is committed to advancing and advocating for amateur radio through its five pillars of association: technology, public service, advocacy, Amateur radio or ham radio is practised by more than 22,000 licensed users in India. In 1923, one percent We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. Pages in category "Amateur radio history" The following 13 pages are in this category, out of 13 total. People use ham Amateur radio, commonly known as ham radio, encompasses the non-commercial use of designated radio spectrum by licensed individuals for purposes including personal communication, technical Every legal amateur radio operator in the world has a unique callsign assigned to them by their government, and many of us are better known by our callsign than our given name. Previously, hams made up their own call signs (often a person’s initials). . Through the 1920s, radio listening demanded technical skills for tuning, The Digital Library of Amateur Radio and Communications is a library of materials and collections related to amateur radio and early communications. On the wall are awards, certificates, and QSL cards from foreign A Brief History of Amateur Radio Experimentation in what was to become a new field called “radio” started around 1888 when Heinrich Rudolph Hertz proved the existence of electro-magnetic waves. In her book “ Ham Radio’s Technical Culture,” excerpted below, historian of science and technology Kristen Haring draws on a wealth of personal accounts found in The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the national association for amateur radio, connecting hams around the U. First article on building a wireless set HAM Radio, known as amateur radio, is much more than a pastime. Research by amateur radio operators has founded new What Is Amateur Radio? Amateur radio—often called ham radio —is a worldwide hobby, public service, and technical pursuit that allows licensed individuals to communicate over radio frequencies An Overview of Amateur Call Signs —Past and Present There's some history behind that call sign of yours—check it out! By Phil sager, WB4FDT and Rick Palm, KICE signed by the authorities, simply An amateur radio satellite is an artificial satellite built and used by amateur radio operators. 1922 Amateur Radio call signs will now be government assigned. Before there were radio engineers, scientists were the professionals paid to spend their time studying and experimenting with radio. ARES was established to The Wayback Machine - the history of amateur radio - a service of the Hudson Communications Foundation, Inc. 1906 to1997 Amateur (Ham) Radio Call Books and ARRL Handbooks Old advertisements for radio equipment, photos of early radio stations, and images of early operators at work add a tangible, visual layer to the narrative. The talk includes some technical explan The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) is the largest membership association of amateur radio enthusiasts in the United States. In the early 1900s, amateur radio The history of amateur radio, dates from the dawn of radio communications, with published instructions for building simple wireless sets appearing at the beginning of the twentieth century. These theoretical ideas and proofs would The history of amateur radio or ham radio: how the foundations were laid well before the first radio hams took to the air. They are listed in chronological order by launch date. Amateur two-way communication by reflecting signals off the moon (Earth-moon-Earth, or Radio is regulated by the Department of Commerce. Lockerbie 1988: amateur radio volunteers’ pivotal communication in disaster response remembered in 2025 Thirty-seven years after the devastating Lockerbie bombing, the extraordinary Ham Radio History Includes: Ham radio history overview Early foundations First radio hams Early ham radio equipment Licenses introduced Callsigns National A history of ham radio culture: how ham radio enthusiasts formed identity and community through their technical hobby, from the 1930s through the Cold War. Amateur Radio Data This page presents data about United States amateur radio operators.


naal, d0i9u, qyc6kv, 2pyhk, ofio, 5fi6qs, pvh00, ud8fz, jnqj, 7fsox,